Student Article

While grand monuments and mighty Pharaohs dominate our image of ancient Egypt, everyday life for ordinary Egyptians was both rich in routine and deeply connected to their environment and beliefs. Egyptologist Joyce Tyldesley offers insight into the lives of farmers, families, artisans, and more.

Social pyramid

Ancient Egyptian society functioned like a pyramid. At the bottom were enslaved people and tenant farmers, who worked on land owned by the Pharaoh, temples, or nobility. Above them were artisans, soldiers, and laborers employed in massive state projects. The professional class — scribes, doctors, and accountants — held considerable respect. At the top stood the elite and the royal family, with the Pharaoh positioned as the sole intermediary between humans and the gods.

Family life and gender roles

With high birth rates but no state welfare, the family unit was critical. Marriages were economic arrangements aimed at forming functional households. Boys trained under their fathers, while girls learned domestic skills from their mothers. Unmarried men were seen as incomplete, and early marriage was encouraged.

Women and the home

Women had legal autonomy and could own property. Within marriage, roles were divided: men worked outside, while women managed the home. Egyptian art even showed this division — men with darker skin tones, women with lighter, reflecting time spent outdoors or indoors.

Childbirth and children

Pregnancy carried serious risks. Women gave birth in squatting positions, often on specially crafted birthing bricks. Wealthier women sometimes had access to birthing huts. Protection came from amulets shaped like Taweret (a hippo goddess) and Bes (a protective dwarf god). Midwives had limited tools — an obsidian or flint knife cut the umbilical cord — and mothers breastfed for up to three years.

Homes and living spaces

Though most mudbrick homes have eroded over time, the workers' village of Deir el-Medina survives. Houses featured front rooms, kitchens with mud ovens, and rooftop areas used for extra living space. Roofs allowed ventilation for cooking and smoke release.

Food and resources

Food was grown, earned as payment (there was no currency), hunted, or traded. Wheat and barley were staples, used to make bread and beer. Typical meals included bread, fish, onions, and legumes. Meat was reserved for the wealthy. Beer — a thick, sweet drink — was common, while wine was a luxury from the Nile Delta.

Clothing and hygiene

Clothes were made of linen; both men and women wore practical garments. Fabrics were treasured and reused, often ending up as mummy wrappings. Laundry was done using natron, a naturally occurring salt.

Medicine and science

Egyptian doctors were famous in the ancient world. They mixed scientific observation with magical rituals. Illness was explained through a network of "body canals" linked to the heart. Treatment included herbal prescriptions, spells, and minor surgeries. Gynecologists provided fertility tests and early contraceptives, though the latter were not always effective.

Spiritual life and religion

Egyptians believed in thousands of gods arranged in a hierarchy. While the Pharaoh and elite worshipped powerful state deities, ordinary people revered local gods and household spirits. Magic was considered real and essential to health and protection — it overlapped with both science and religion.

Death and the afterlife

Death was viewed as a transition. To enter the afterlife, the body had to be preserved. Mummification involved removing organs (except the heart), drying the body in natron for 40 days, and wrapping it in linen. The brain was removed through the nose with a long spoon-like tool. Most people, however, couldn’t afford this and were buried in simple graves. Their expectations of the afterlife remain a mystery.

© Joyce Tyldesley / www.historyextra.com